基本介紹
- 中文名稱：馬納斯野生動物禁獵區 /馬納斯國家公園/馬納斯野生動植物保護區
- 外文名稱： Manas Wildlife Sanctuary /Manas National Park
- 地理位置：印度-阿薩姆邦
- 占地面積：50，000公頃
- 景點級別：國際自然與自然資源保護聯合會）管理分類IV (自然保護區）
簡介,氣候,詳細,野生動物,植被,自然環境,部落,評價,英文原文,
簡介
中文名稱： 馬納斯野生動物禁獵區 /馬納斯國家公園/馬納斯野生動植物保護區
英文名稱： Manas Wildlife Sanctuary /Manas National Park
批准時間： 1992
國家 印度-阿薩姆邦
IUCN(International Union for the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources國際自然與自然資源保護聯合會）管理分類IV (自然保護區）
世界自然遺產批准標準 –標準 ii,iii,iv
評為遺產的報告：世界遺產委員會第9屆、第16屆會議報告，1998年遺產保護狀況報告。
生物地理學亞區4.09.01 （緬甸季風雨林）
氣候
溫暖而潮濕 （最高達76%的相對濕度）。大部分降水集中在雨季（5月至9月）. 一般夏季最高氣溫37°C ，冬季最低氣溫一般為11°C. 年均降水量分布從巴塔巴里（Batabari）的3332mm 到卡楚岡的4489mm不等，數據基於單獨記錄的11到17年間的單獨記錄。（佚名，1974; 德布羅意，未註明時間.).
詳細
設立保護區的時間和歷史 馬納斯 （也稱為北卡姆拉普） 在1928年12月1日成為禁獵區，以前它的一部分地區已經在1907年和1927年成為森林保護區. 為了解決當地居民（因無法種植作物而）可能侵犯保護區的問題，當地政府在1971年從保護區中劃出809公頃的土地作為種子農場。從1973年4月起，馬納斯國家公園被確定為馬納斯老虎保護區的核心區域. 1985年以“馬納斯禁獵區”的名義被列入世界遺產候選名單。1990年9月7日，禁獵區升級成為國家公園，由於加入了從前東部的潘巴里 (Panbari），科克拉巴里（Koklabari）和卡伊他瑪（Kahitama）森林保護區，面積也從39，100公頃擴大到50，000公頃 （奧利弗Oliver,1993: K. Rao pers. comm.,1995). 由於政局不穩及隨之而來的對公園基礎設施的破壞，1992年被列入世界瀕危遺產名錄。範圍 公園占據了283,712公頃的馬納斯老虎保護區的50,000公頃，並與不丹的皇家馬納斯國家公園（占地65，800公頃）相接壤。
土地所有制 國有
海拔 從40米到150米 （德布羅意Deb Roy，未註明日期）.
野生動物
印度馬納斯野生動物禁獵區的風景使人流連忘返，神秘而富饒的叢林中生活著各種各樣的動物。這裡的野生動物數量在印度首屈一指。野生動物禁獵區中總共有55種哺乳動物，36種爬行動物和3種兩棲動物記錄在冊。此禁獵區也是印度所確定的保護區里擁有哺乳動物最多的，而且其中有不少是東南亞雨林的典型動物代表。
禁獵區中的哺乳動物主要包括金葉猴、普通葉猴、長臂猿、暗色豹、老虎、普通豹、金貓、魚貓、虎貓、熊狸、大懶熊、野狗、恆河海豚、印度大象、印度犀牛（1980年時大約有75隻）、侏儒豬、沼澤鹿、黑鹿、拱鹿、印度麂、水牛、印度野牛、大松鼠、硬毛野兔和印度穿山甲。其中金葉猴只在馬納斯野生動物禁獵區和印度與不丹交界處發現過；這裡老虎的數量在印度位居第二，截止到1984年有記載的老虎達123隻；禁獵區裡的印度大象業已達到2000頭，還有超過1000頭的大象在印不交界處附近自由的生活著。
印度馬納斯野生動物禁獵區有紀錄可查的鳥類達300多種，其中包括瀕危的大雜色犀鳥、飾以花環的犀鳥等。1989年，就是在這裡，印度首次正式發現了雜色鷂鷹。令人驚喜的是，世上罕有的帶點塘鵝和幾種鸛類也在這裡出沒過。
植被
印度馬納斯野生動物禁獵區主要有三種植被：（a）位於禁獵區北部的熱帶半綠林（例如樟樹）。（b）熱帶乾濕落葉林（最為常見），代表樹種有：木棉樹、蘋婆、石梓屬和木蝴蝶屬。（c）位於禁獵區西部的廣闊的沖積草原，由許多草類、各種樹木和灌木叢組成（例如油柑、木棉樹）；這片草原又可進一步細分為濕潤的沖積草原和丘陵稀樹大草原。沿著水路，最早出現的是乾燥落葉林，後來濕潤落葉林就映入眼帘，最後植被又漸漸地被茂密的熱帶半綠林所代替。草原覆蓋了禁獵區一半的面積。禁獵區內被正式確認的雙子葉植物一共有393種，單子葉植物98種。
自然環境
位於外喜馬拉雅山的山腳下，該地區地勢低平. 馬納斯河從禁獵區西部分成三個支流穿流而過，直到禁獵區南64公里處匯入雅魯藏布江。馬納斯河和其它河流夾帶著由強降水、易碎的岩石特質和大傾斜角的積水處共同作用形成的大量泥沙和岩屑流經老虎保護區，形成了沖積梯田，包括堆有不同厚度沙子和土壤的厚厚的沉積岩層和碎石，以及多變的河道和沼澤。北部是所謂的 “巴巴布”（Bhabar）構造，由於是有一薄層的腐殖質，而後是砂壤土覆蓋的厚厚的砂礫的沉積形成而非常容易滲水。南部的“氈帽” 地區則是由平坦的沖積層。在這裡，地下水的水位十分接近地表。公園西部的博基（Boki）盆地地區在雨季有時會被淹沒，但由於斜坡的作用不會持續很長時間。野生動物在洪水中的死亡率幾乎可以忽略，因為它們能夠尋找高地躲避 （佚名，1974；德布羅意，未註明時間）.
部落
印度馬納斯野生動物禁獵區的周圍居住著一些部落民族，禁獵區的東南部有一個享受國家補貼的林莊。大約有5萬人分布在老虎保護區緩衝地帶的144個村落里（這些村莊一般不會有什麼變動）。禁獵區的森林中建有一套帶走廊的平房，可以提供48個人的住宿。林中還有好多休息室和野營地呢！在馬納斯野生動物禁獵區中沿河泛舟或是以象代步遊覽美景，真是別有一番意境；當然，河邊垂釣也不失為一種閒情野趣吧。
評價
馬納斯野生動物保護區位於喜馬拉雅山腳下一片沖積草原和熱帶森林裡，是多種野生動物的家園。其中包括許多瀕危物種，如老虎、小靈豬、印度犀牛和大象。外界威脅：1992年，世界遺產委員會決定把這一地區列入世界瀕危遺產名錄。委員會考慮到，1992至93年期間，圍繞這一地區的軍事活動已經對公園的基礎設施造成很大破壞。政局不穩看來已導致偷獵的增加。約33頭犀牛被偷獵。1997年1月，由印度政府和聯合國世界遺產中心共同承擔的監督委員會進一步確認，基礎設施的損壞在擴大，野生動物的數量在減少，特別是獨角大犀牛數量減少。然而世界遺產重視生態系統多樣性（標準II）與景色特徵完整性（標準III）的相適宜。印度政府、阿薩姆邦政府和公園當局正在精心製作一個6百萬美元的恢復計畫，預計1997年中投入實施。
英文原文
COUNTRY India – Assam（阿薩姆邦）
NAME Manas National Park
IUCN(International Union for the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources國際自然與自然資源保護聯合會）MANAGEMENT CATEGORY
IV (Managed Nature Reserve)
Natural World Heritage Site – Criteria（標準） ii,iii,iv
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE 4.09.01 (Burma Monsoon Forest)
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION The park lies in the districts of Barpeta（巴匹達） and Kokrajhar（科克拉賈），41km north of Barpeta Road township. It spans the Manas River and is bounded to the north by the international border with Bhutan,to the south by the populated regions of North Kamrup（卡姆拉普） and to the east and west by forest reserves. The park,which includes part of Manas Reserve Forest and all of North Kamrup Reserve Forest,constitutes the core of Manas Tiger Reserve which lies in the forest divisions of Kachugaon,Haltugaon,Western Assam Wildlife and North Kamrup. 26°37'-26°50'N,90°45'-91°15'E
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT Manas (previously also known as North Kamrup) was declared a sanctuary on 1 October 1928,parts of it having been notified as reserved forests in 1907 and 1927. Encroachment（侵犯） pressures from local people led the government to set aside 809ha from the sanctuary for a seed farm in 1971. It was established as the core of the Manas Tiger Reserve with effect from April 1973. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1985 as Manas Sanctuary. The sanctuary was upgraded to national park status on 7 September 1990,and enlarged from 39,100ha to 50,000ha by the inclusion of the former Panbar（潘巴里）i,Koklabari（科克拉巴里） and Kahitama（卡伊他瑪） Forest Reserves in the eastern sector (Oliver,1993: K. Rao pers. comm.,1995). Placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1992 due to civil unrest and subsequent damage to infrastructure.
AREA The park comprises 50,000ha of the 283,712ha Manas Tiger Reserve. Contiguous（鄰近的） with Royal Manas National Park (65,800ha),Bhutan.
LAND TENURE（土地所有） State
ALTITUDE Ranges from 40m to 150m (Deb Roy,n.d.).
PHYSICAL FEATURES Lying in the foothills of the Outer Himalaya,the area is low-lying（低地） and flat. The Manas River flows through the western portion of the park,where it splits into three separate rivers,and joins the Brahmaputra（雅魯藏布江） some 64km further south. These and other rivers running through the tiger reserve carry an enormous amount of silt（泥） and rock debris（屑） from the foothills,resulting from the heavy rainfall,fragile nature of the rock and steepgradients（大傾斜角） of the catchments（積水處）. This leads to the formation of alluvial（沖積台地） terraces,comprising deep layers of deposited rock（沉積岩） and detritus（碎石） overlain（堆在上面） with sand and soil of varying depth,shifting river channels and swamps（沼澤）. The northern portion is represented by the 'Bhabar' formation,which is very porous（多孔滲水的） due to the deep deposits of coarse detritus overlain by sandy loam（砂壤土） and then a thin layer of humus（腐殖質）. The 'Terai'（氈帽） tract in the south consists of fine alluvial deposits with underlying pans. Here,the water table（地下水位） lies very near to the surface. The area of the Boki basin,in the west of the park,is sometimes inundated（淹沒） during the monsoon（季風） but never for very long due to the sloping relief. Mortality to wildlife is negligible as animals are able to stake refuge on islands of high ground (Anon.,1974; Deb Roy,n.d.).
CLIMATE The climate is warm and humid (up to 76% relative humidity) with most rain falling during the monsoon season (May-September). The mean（平均） maximum summer temperature is 37°C and the mean minimum winter temperature is 11°C. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 3332mm at Batabari to 4489mm at Kachugaon,based on 11 and 17 years of records,respectively (Anon.,1974; Deb Roy,n.d.).
VEGETATION（植被） The three main types of vegetation are:- (a) Tropical semi-evergreen forests in the northern part of park,with common trees including Aphanamixis polystachya（桫欏），Anthocephalus chinensis（團花），Syzygium cumini（海南蒲桃），S. formosum（石斛蒲桃），S. oblatum（高檐蒲桃），Bauhinia purpurea（羊蹄甲），Mallotus philippensis（粗糠柴），Cinnamomum tamala（柴桂），Actinodaphne obovata（倒卵黃肉楠）； (b) tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (the most common type),characterised by trees such as Bombax ceiba（木棉），Sterculia villosa（絨毛蘋婆），Dillenia indica（五椏果），D. pentagyna（小花五椏果），Careya arborea（不知道是甚么），Lagerstroemia parviflora（小葉紫薇），L. speciosa（大花紫薇），Terminalia bellirica（油欖仁），T. chebula（毛訶子），Trewia polycrapa（滑桃樹屬的一種植物），Gmelina arborea（雲南石梓），Oroxylum indicum（木蝴蝶），Bridelia（土蜜樹） spp.; and (c) extensive alluvial grasslands in the western part of the park,comprising many different grass species together with a variety of tree and shrub species (e.g. Dillenia pentagyna（小花五椏果），Phyllanthus emblica（余甘子），Bombax ceiba（木棉），and species of Clerodendrum（赬桐屬），Leea（火筒樹屬），Grewia（扁擔桿屬），Premna（豆腐柴屬）and Mussaenda（玉葉金花屬））. The grasslands can be subdivided into wet alluvial and highland savanna types. There is also a considerable variety of aquatic flora along river banks and in the numerous pools (Jain and Sastry,1983). Dry deciduous forests represent early stages in succession and are replaced by moist deciduous forests away from water courses,which,in turn,are succeeded by tropical semi-evergreen climax forest. Grasslands cover about 50% of the park. Some 393 species of dicotyledons（雙子葉植物），including 197 trees,and 98 species of monocotyledons have been identified (Jain and Hajra,1975; S. Deb. Roy,pers. comm.).
FAUNA（動物志） A total of 55 mammals,36 reptiles and three amphibians have been recorded (Project Tiger,n.d.). Manas harbours by far the greatest number (21) of India's Schedule I mammals of any protected area in the country. Many are typical of South-east Asian rain forest and have their westernmost distribution here. Mammals include golden langur Presbytis geei （金絲猴）（R),a recently discovered endemic（地方性的） restricted to Manas and adjoining areas in Bhutan and numbering approximately 305 in 1980,capped langur P. pileata（戴帽葉猴），Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock（白眉長臂猿），clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa（雲豹） (V),tiger Panthera tigris (E) the second largest population in India numbering 80 in 1995,although this figure is disputed (Milne,1997),leopard P. pardus,golden cat Felis temmincki (I),fishing cat F. viverrinus (K),leopard cat F. bengalensis,marbled cat F. marmorata (K),binturong（熊狸） Arctictis binturong,sloth bear（懶熊） Melursus ursinus (I),wild dog Cuon alpinus (V),Ganges （恆河）dolphin Platanista gangetica,Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E),with up to 2,000 in the tiger reserve and more than 1,000 moving freely between Indian and Bhutan Manas reserves,Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E),pygmy hog （小靈豬）Sus salvanius (E),swamp deerC. duvauceli (V),with approximately 450 individuals (Deb Roy,1992),sambar（水鹿） Cervus unicolor,hog deer C. porcinus,Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak,water buffalo Bubalus arnee (V),probably representing the only pure strain of this species in India,gaur（印度野牛） Bos gaurus (V),giant squirrel Ratufa indica,hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus (E) and Indian pangolin（穿山甲） Manis crassicaudata.
Over 450 species of birds have been recorded (Deb Roy,1990) including the threatened Bengal（孟加拉） florican（鴇） Houbaropsis bengalensis (E),great pied hornbill（大雜色犀鳥） Buceros bicornis,wreathed hornbil（花冠皺盔犀鳥
）l (Rhyticeros undulatus and other hornbills. The Bengal florican population was estimated at 34 in 1984 for the national park (Ali et al.,1985) and 80 individuals with 24 male territories were identified within the park during 1988 (Narayan et al.,1989). Pied harrier （鷂鷹）Circus melanoleucos nested during 1988 and 1989,the first confirmed record for India (Narayan et al.,1989). Uncommon waterfowl（水禽） species include spot-billed pelican（斑點鵜鶘） Pelecanus philippinensis (I),lesser adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (V) and greater adjutant L. dubius (E) (Scott,1989).
Reptiles include a variety of snakes (e.g. vine snake （蔓蛇）Ahaetulla nasutas,flying snake Chrysopelea ornata,Assam trinket snake（阿薩姆邦小蛇） Elaphe frenata and banded krait( 金環蛇）Bangarus fasciatus),gharial（恆河鱷） Gavialis gangeticus (E) (possibly introduced from neighbouring Bhutan or as a result of a captive breeding programme),and monitor lizard（巨蜥） Varanus sp. Assam roofed turtle Kachuga sylhetensis (K) has recently been recorded (Sarma,1988).
CULTURAL HERITAGE Manas takes its name after the Goddess Manasa. The surrounding area is inhabited predominantly(mainly) by tribal people (Deb Roy,n.d.).
LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION There is one forest village in the south-east of the park,which it is proposed to dereserve and enlist as a revenue village along with other contiguous revenue villages (Deb Roy,n.d.). Some 54,000 people are distributed among 144 villages in the buffer zone of the tiger reserve (Anon.,1974); no relocation of these villages is contemplated (Deb Roy,n.d.).
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES A forest bungalow（平房） at Mothanguri,within the park,provides dormitory style accommodation for 48 persons. A number of rest houses and camp sites are also available. The Tourist Department of Assam conducts tours,including boat trips down the river and elephant rides. Foreign visitors need a special permit to enter the park. Some 32,860 people visited the area in 1983-1984. Due to the Bodo agitation（煽動） in Assam,the park was closed in 1989 (K. Rao pers. comm.,1995),but in 1996 an estimated 8,000 tourists visited the park (IUCN,1997).
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES The vegetation has been surveyed by the Botanical Survey of India (Jain and Hajra,1975). Tiger and elephant censuses are regularly undertaken by Project Tiger. The status of Bengal florican was investigated in May 1984 (Ali et al.,1985). In 1993,WWF(world wildlife fund) initiated a project to identify the essential needs of the fringe villagers with the aim of providing alternatives to their dependence on the park (WWF,1993).
CONSERVATION VALUE Manas is noted for its spectacular scenery,with a variety of habitat types that support a diverse fauna,making it the richest of all Indian wildlife areas. The park represents the core of an extensive tiger reserve that protects an importantmigratory wildlife resource along the West Bengal to Arunachal Pradesh（阿魯納恰爾，實為中國領土）and Bhutan borders (Rodgers and Panwar,1988). Its wetlands are of international importance (Scott,1989). It is also the single most important site for the survival of pygmy hog and hispid hare (Oliver,1980) and golden langur (K. Rao pers. comm.,1995).
CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The Assam Forest Department is responsible for the administration of the park. The park is essentially a wilderness zone and forms the core of the tiger reserve. The rest of the tiger reserve is classified as reserve forest. Normal forestry operations were carried out in the core area prior to its designation as a sanctuary,but these were confined mostly to the southern belt. Traditional hunting practices persisted but without any noticeable adverse effects on wildlife populations. Hunting ceased with the establishment of the area as a sanctuary and very little logging has been permitted since 1950. The last timber operation took place in 1964. Much stone was extracted from the area during the construction of the National Highway in 1963-1964. Plantations( 種植園）were established along the southern border to provide a buffer against agricultural encroachment（侵犯） but this work ceased in 1977. Grazing （放牧）by livestock（家畜） was phased out（逐漸停止） from 1963 to 1965. No exploitation is allowed in the park but tourists may visit the Mothanguri-Bansbari area. Such restrictions do not apply to the surrounding buffer zone of the tiger reserve,which is managed on a multiple-use basis. Here residents are allowed to selectively remove timber,collect firewood,cultivate land and graze their domestic livestock. They benefit from inoculation of their cattle,to prevent diseases being transmitted to the wildlife,but this is offset（抵消） by damage to their crops by elephants,wild boar and deer
There is a management plan for the tiger reserve (Anon.,1973) but this is being revised. Controlled burning continues as the most important management practise,thus maintaining the composition of different habitats (Deb Roy,1990). International cooperative efforts have been made by the governments of India and Bhutan to manage the Manas ecosystem as a whole. Regular work carried out under the Project Tiger scheme includes: providing accommodation to the staff; development of roads and a wireless network to improve the efficiency of administration and anti-poaching operations; activities in both the core and buffer zones. Boundaries have been clearly marked and the staff are more vigilant（警惕的） than previously,leading to several successful prosecutions being brought against poachers（偷獵者）. Following recent successful breeding in captivity of gharial（印度鱷），there are plans to restock all the water channels in the area.
A three year rehabilitation programme has been prepared by the Ministry for the Environment and Forests,the State Forest Department of Assam and the Directorate of Manas. This aims to restore protection infrastructure,and set up eco-development schemes for surrounding villages and habitat improvement programmes (UNESCO,1997a).
