計算機圖形學（第四版）（英文版）

內容簡介

本書是一本內容豐富、取材新穎的計算機圖形學著作，在前一版的基礎上進行了棄市擊全面擴充，增加了許多新的內容，覆蓋了近年來計算機圖形糠剃拔學的最新發展和成就。全書層次分明、重點突朽姜蒸出，並附有使用OpenGL編寫的大量程式及各種效果圖，是一本難得的優秀教材。全書共分為24章及3個附錄，全面系統地講解了計算機圖形學的基本概念和相關技術。作者首先對計算機圖形學進行綜述；然後講解二維圖形的對象表示、算法及套用，三維圖形的相關技術、建模和變換等；接著介紹光照模型、顏色模埋乃迎型和動畫技術。本書還新增了有關分層建求囑捉協模與動畫的介紹，OpenGL的全面介紹；最後戀騙囑戒的附錄給出了計算機圖形學中用辨汽到的基本數學概念、圖形檔案格式及OpenGL的相關內容等。

圖書目錄

Contents

1 A Survey of Computer Graphics 25

1-1 Graphs and Charts 26

1-2 Computer-Aided Design 26

1-3 Virtual-Reality Environments 28

1-4 Data Visualizations 28

1-5 Education and Training 29

1-6 Computer Art 29

1-7 Entertainment 30

1-8 Image Processing 31

1-9 Graphical User Interfaces 31

1-10 Summary 32

2 Computer Graphics Hardware 33

2-1 Video Display Devices 34

Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes 34

Raster-Scan Displays 37

Random-Scan Displays 39

Color CRT Monitors 40

Flat-Panel Displays 42

Three-Dimensional Viewing Devices 44

Stereoscopic and Virtual-Reality Systems 45

2-2 Raster-Scan Systems 46

Video Controller 46

Raster-Scan Display Processor 48

2-3 GraphicsWorkstations and Viewing Systems 49

2-4 Input Devices 50

Keyboards, Button Boxes, and Dials 50

Mouse Devices 50

Trackballs and Spaceballs 51

Joysticks 51

Data Gloves 52

Digitizers 52

Image Scanners 53

Touch Panels 53

Light Pens 54

Voice Systems 54

2-5 Hard-Copy Devices 54

2-6 Graphics Networks 56

2-7 Graphics on the Internet 56

2-8 Summary 57

3 Computer Graphics Software 59

3-1 Coordinate Representations 60

3-2 Graphics Functions 61

3-3 Software Standards 62

3-4 Other Graphics Packages 63

3-5 Introduction to OpenGL 64

Basic OpenGL Syntax 64

Related Libraries 64

Header Files 65

Display-Window Management Using GLUT 66

A Complete OpenGL Program 67

Error Handling in OpenGL 71

3-6 Summary 72

4 Graphics Output Primitives 75

4-1 Coordinate Reference Frames 76

Screen Coordinates 76

Absolute and Relative Coordinate Specifications 77

4-2 Specifying A Two-DimensionalWorld-

Coordinate Reference Frame in OpenGL 78

4-3 OpenGL Point Functions 79

4-4 OpenGL Line Functions 81

4-5 OpenGL Curve Functions 82

4-6 Fill-Area Primitives 83

4-7 Polygon Fill Areas 84

Polygon Classifications 85

Identifying Concave Polygons 85

Splitting Concave Polygons 86

Splitting a Convex Polygon into a Set of Triangles 87

Inside-Outside Tests 87

Polygon Tables 90

Plane Equations 91

Front and Back Polygon Faces 92

4-8 OpenGL Polygon Fill-Area Functions 94

4-9 OpenGL Vertex Arrays 100

4-10 Pixel-Array Primitives 102

4-11 OpenGL Pixel-Array Functions 103

OpenGL Bitmap Function 103

OpenGL Pixmap Function 105

OpenGL Raster Operations 106

4-12 Character Primitives 107

4-13 OpenGL Character Functions 109

4-14 Picture Partitioning 110

4-15 OpenGL Display Lists 111

Creating and Naming an OpenGL Display List 111

Executing OpenGL Display Lists 112

Deleting OpenGL Display Lists 113

4-16 OpenGL Display-Window Reshape Function 113

4-17 Summary 116

5 Attributes of Graphics

Primitives 129

5-1 OpenGL State Variables 130

5-2 Color and Grayscale 130

RGB Color Components 130

Color Tables 131

Grayscale 132

Other Color Parameters 133

5-3 OpenGL Color Functions 133

The OpenGL RGB and RGBA Color Modes 133

OpenGL Color-Index Mode 134

OpenGL Color Blending 135

OpenGL Color Arrays 136

Other OpenGL Color Functions 138

5-4 Point Attributes 139

5-5 OpenGL Point-Attribute Functions 139

5-6 Line Attributes 139

Line Width 139

Line Style 140

Pen and Brush Options 140

5-7 OpenGL Line-Attribute Functions 141

OpenGL Line-Width Function 141

OpenGL Line-Style Function 141

Other OpenGL Line Effects 143

5-8 Curve Attributes 143

5-9 Fill-Area Attributes 144

Fill Styles 144

Color-Blended Fill Regions 145

5-10 OpenGL Fill-Area Attribute Functions 145

OpenGL Fill-Pattern Function 145

OpenGL Texture and Interpolation Patterns 146

OpenGL Wire-Frame Methods 147

OpenGL Front-Face Function 150

5-11 Character Attributes 150

5-12 OpenGL Character-Attribute Functions 153

5-13 OpenGL Antialiasing Functions 153

5-14 OpenGL Query Functions 154

5-15 OpenGL Attribute Groups 155

5-16 Summary 155

6 Implementation Algorithms for Graphics Primitives and Attributes 161

6-1 Line-Drawing Algorithms 162

Line Equations 162

DDA Algorithm 163

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm 164

Displaying Polylines 168

6-2 Parallel Line Algorithms 168

6-3 Setting Frame-Buffer Values 170

6-4 Circle-Generating Algorithms 171

Properties of Circles 171

Midpoint Circle Algorithm 173

6-5 Ellipse-Generating Algorithms 177

Properties of Ellipses 177

Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm 178

6-6 Other Curves 184

Conic Sections 185

Polynomials and Spline Curves 186

6-7 Parallel Curve Algorithms 187

6-8 Pixel Addressing and Object Geometry 187

Screen Grid Coordinates 188

Maintaining Geometric Properties of Displayed Objects 188

6-9 Attribute Implementations for Straight-Line Segments and Curves 190

Line Width 190

Line Style 192

Pen and Brush Options 193

Curve Attributes 194

6-10 General Scan-Line Polygon-Fill Algorithm 195

6-11 Scan-Line Fill of Convex Polygons 199

6-12 Scan-Line Fill for Regions with Curved Boundaries 200

6-13 Fill Methods for Areas with Irregular Boundaries 200

Boundary-Fill Algorithm 200

Flood-Fill Algorithm 204

6-14 Implementation Methods for Fill Styles 204

Fill Styles 205

Color-Blended Fill Regions 205

6-15 Implementation Methods for Antialiasing 207

Supersampling Straight-Line Segments 208

Subpixel Weighting Masks 210

Area Sampling Straight-Line Segments 210

Filtering Techniques 210

Pixel Phasing 210

Compensating for Line-Intensity Differences 211

Antialiasing Area Boundaries 212

6-16 Summary 214

7 Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations 219

7-1 Basic Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations 220

Two-Dimensional Translation 220

Two-Dimensional Rotation 222

Two-Dimensional Scaling 224

7-2 Matrix Representations and

Homogeneous Coordinates 225

Homogeneous Coordinates 226

Two-Dimensional Translation Matrix 227

Two-Dimensional Rotation Matrix 227

Two-Dimensional Scaling Matrix 227

7-3 Inverse Transformations 228

7-4 Two-Dimensional Composite Transformations 228

Composite Two-Dimensional Translations 229

Composite Two-Dimensional Rotations 229

Composite Two-Dimensional Scalings 229

General Two-Dimensional Pivot-Point Rotation 230

General Two-Dimensional Fixed-Point Scaling 230

General Two-Dimensional Scaling Directions 231

Matrix Concatenation Properties 232

General Two-Dimensional Composite Transformations and Computational

Efficiency 233

Two-Dimensional Rigid-Body Transformation 234

Constructing Two-Dimensional Rotation Matrices 235

Two-Dimensional Composite-Matrix Programming Example 235

7-5 Other Two-Dimensional Transformations 240

Reflection 240

Shear 242

7-6 Raster Methods for Geometric Transformations 244

7-7 OpenGL Raster Transformations 245

7-8 Transformations between Two-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 246

7-9 OpenGL Functions for Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations 248

Basic OpenGL Geometric Transformations 248

OpenGL Matrix Operations 250

7-10 OpenGL Geometric-Transformation Programming Examples 252

7-11 Summary 253

8 Two-Dimensional Viewing 257

8-1 The Two-Dimensional Viewing Pipeline 258

8-2 The ClippingWindow 259

Viewing-Coordinate Clipping Window 260

World-Coordinate Clipping Window 260

8-3 Normalization and Viewport Transformations 261

Mapping the Clipping Window into a Normalized Viewport 261

Mapping the Clipping Window into a Normalized Square 263

Display of Character Strings 265

Split-Screen Effects and Multiple Output Devices 265

8-4 OpenGL Two-Dimensional Viewing Functions 265

OpenGL Projection Mode 265

GLU Clipping-Window Function 266

OpenGL Viewport Function 266

Creating a GLUT Display Window 267

Setting the GLUT Display-Window Mode and Color 268

GLUT Display-Window Identifier 268

Deleting a GLUT Display Window 268

Current GLUT Display Window 268

Relocating and Resizing a GLUT Display Window 269

Managing Multiple GLUT Display Windows 269

GLUT Subwindows 269

Selecting a Display-Window Screen-Cursor Shape 270

Viewing Graphics Objects in a GLUT Display Window 271

Executing the Application Program 271

Other GLUT Functions 272

OpenGL Two-Dimensional Viewing Program Example 272

8-5 Clipping Algorithms 274

8-6 Two-Dimensional Point Clipping 274

8-7 Two-Dimensional Line Clipping 275

Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping 276

Liang-Barsky Line Clipping 281

Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl Line Clipping 284

Line Clipping Using Nonrectangular Polygon Clip Windows 286

Line Clipping Using Nonlinear Clipping-Window Boundaries 286

8-8 Polygon Fill-Area Clipping 287

Sutherland--Hodgman Polygon Clipping 289

Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping 293

Polygon Clipping Using Nonrectangular Polygon Clip Windows 295

Polygon Clipping Using Nonlinear Clipping-Window Boundaries 296

8-9 Curve Clipping 296

8-10 Text Clipping 297

8-11 Summary 298

9 Three-Dimensional Geometric Transformations 303

9-1 Three-Dimensional Translation 304

9-2 Three-Dimensional Rotation 305

Three-Dimensional Coordinate-Axis Rotations 306

General Three-Dimensional Rotations 308

Quaternion Methods for Three-Dimensional Rotations 313

9-3 Three-Dimensional Scaling 317

9-4 Composite Three-Dimensional Transformations 319

9-5 Other Three-Dimensional Transformations 322

Three-Dimensional Reflections 322

Three-Dimensional Shears 323

9-6 Transformations between Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 323

9-7 Affine Transformations 324

9-8 OpenGL Geometric-Transformation Functions 324

OpenGL Matrix Stacks 324

9-9 OpenGL Three-Dimensional Geometric-Transformation Programming Examples 326

9-10 Summary 327

10 Three-Dimensional Viewing 331

10-1 Overview of Three-Dimensional Viewing Concepts 332

Viewing a Three-Dimensional Scene 332

Projections 332

Depth Cueing 333

Identifying Visible Lines and Surfaces 333

Surface Rendering 333

Exploded and Cutaway Views 333

Three-Dimensional and Stereoscopic Viewing 334

10-2 The Three-Dimensional Viewing Pipeline 334

10-3 Three-Dimensional Viewing-Coordinate Parameters 336

The View-Plane Normal Vector 336

The View-Up Vector 337

The uvn Viewing-Coordinate Reference Frame 337

Generating Three-Dimensional Viewing Effects 338

10-4 Transformation fromWorld to Viewing Coordinates 338

10-5 Projection Transformations 340

10-6 Orthogonal Projections 340

Axonometric and Isometric Orthogonal Projections 341

Orthogonal Projection Coordinates 341

Clipping Window and Orthogonal-Projection View Volume 342

Normalization Transformation for an Orthogonal Projection 344

10-7 Oblique Parallel Projections 345

Oblique Parallel Projections in Drafting and Design 346

Cavalier and Cabinet Oblique Parallel Projections 347

Oblique Parallel-Projection Vector 348

Clipping Window and Oblique Parallel-Projection View Volume 349

Oblique Parallel-Projection Transformation Matrix 349

Normalization Transformation for an Oblique Parallel Projection 350

10-8 Perspective Projections 351

Perspective-Projection Transformation Coordinates 351

Perspective-Projection Equations: Special Cases 352

Vanishing Points for Perspective Projections 354

Perspective-Projection View Volume 355

Perspective-Projection Transformation Matrix 356

Symmetric Perspective-Projection Frustum 357

Oblique Perspective-Projection Frustum 359

Normalized Perspective-Projection Transformation Coordinates 362

10-9 The Viewport Transformation and Three-Dimensional Screen Coordinates 365

10-10 OpenGL Three-Dimensional Viewing Functions 365

OpenGL Viewing-Transformation Function 366

OpenGL Orthogonal-Projection Function 366

OpenGL Symmetric Perspective-Projection Function 368

OpenGL General Perspective-Projection Function 368

OpenGL Viewports and Display Windows 369

OpenGL Three-Dimensional Viewing Program Example 369

10-11 Three-Dimensional Clipping Algorithms 371

Clipping in Three-Dimensional Homogeneous Coordinates 372

Three-Dimensional Region Codes 373

Three-Dimensional Point and Line Clipping 374

Three-Dimensional Polygon Clipping 376

Three-Dimensional Curve Clipping 377

Arbitrary Clipping Planes 377

10-12 OpenGL Optional Clipping Planes 379

10-13 Summary 380

11 Hierarchical Modeling 383

11-1 Basic Modeling Concepts 384

System Representations 384

Symbol Hierarchies 385

11-2 Modeling Packages 387

11-3 General Hierarchical Modeling Methods 387

Local Coordinates 388

Modeling Transformations 388

Creating Hierarchical Structures 388

11-4 Hierarchical Modeling Using OpenGL Display Lists 390

11-5 Summary 391

12 Computer Animation 393

12-1 Raster Methods for Computer Animation 394

Double Buffering 394

Generating Animations Using Raster Operations 395

12-2 Design of Animation Sequences 396

12-3 Traditional Animation Techniques 397

12-4 General Computer-Animation Functions 398

12-5 Computer-Animation Languages 398

12-6 Key-Frame Systems 399

Morphing 399

Simulating Accelerations 401

12-7 Motion Specifications 404

Direct Motion Specification 404

Goal-Directed Systems 404

Kinematics and Dynamics 405

12-8 Character Animation 406

Articulated Figure Animation 406

Motion Capture 407

12-9 Periodic Motions 408

12-10 OpenGL Animation Procedures 409

12-11 Summary 412

13 Three-Dimensional Object Representations 417

13-1 Polyhedra 418

13-2 OpenGL Polyhedron Functions 418

OpenGL Polygon Fill-Area Functions 418

GLUT Regular Polyhedron Functions 418

Example GLUT Polyhedron Program 420

13-3 Curved Surfaces 421

13-4 Quadric Surfaces 422

Sphere 422

Ellipsoid 422

Torus 423

13-5 Superquadrics 424

Superellipse 424

Superellipsoid 425

13-6 OpenGL Quadric-Surface and Cubic-Surface Functions 425

GLUT Quadric-Surface Functions 425

GLUT Cubic-Surface Teapot Function 426

GLU Quadric-Surface Functions 427

Example Program Using GLUT and GLU Quadric-Surface Functions 429

13-7 Summary 431

14 Spline Representations 435

14-1 Interpolation and Approximation Splines 436

14-2 Parametric Continuity Conditions 437

14-3 Geometric Continuity Conditions 438

14-4 Spline Specifications 439

14-5 Spline Surfaces 440

14-6 Trimming Spline Surfaces 440

14-7 Cubic-Spline Interpolation Methods 441

Natural Cubic Splines 441

Hermite Interpolation 442

Cardinal Splines 443

Kochanek-Bartels Splines 447

14-8 Bézier Spline Curves 447

Bézier Curve Equations 448

Example Bézier Curve-Generating Program 449

Properties of Bézier Curves 452

Design Techniques Using Bézier Curves 453

Cubic Bézier Curves 454

14-9 Bézier Surfaces 455

14-10 B-Spline Curves 457

B-Spline Curve Equations 457

Uniform Periodic B-Spline Curves 458

Cubic Periodic B-Spline Curves 461

Open Uniform B-Spline Curves 463

Nonuniform B-Spline Curves 464

14-11 B-Spline Surfaces 466

14-12 Beta-Splines 466

Beta-Spline Continuity Conditions 466

Cubic Periodic Beta-Spline Matrix Representation 467

14-13 Rational Splines 467

14-14 Conversion Between Spline Representations 469

14-15 Displaying Spline Curves and Surfaces 470

Horner’s Rule 471

Forward-Difference Calculations 471

Subdivision Methods 472

14-16 OpenGL Approximation-Spline Functions 474

OpenGL Bézier-Spline Curve Functions 474

OpenGL Bézier-Spline Surface Functions 477

GLU B-Spline Curve Functions 479

GLU B-Spline Surface Functions 481

GLU Surface-Trimming Functions 483

14-17 Summary 485

15 Other Three-Dimensional Object Representations 491

15-1 Blobby Objects 492

15-2 Sweep Representations 493

15-3 Constructive Solid-Geometry Methods 494

15-4 Octrees 496

15-5 BSP Trees 498

15-6 Physically Based Modeling 499

15-7 Summary 500

16 Visible-Surface Detection Methods 503

16-1 Classification of Visible-Surface Detection Algorithms 504

16-2 Back-Face Detection 504

16-3 Depth-Buffer Method 505

16-4 A-Buffer Method 506

16-5 Scan-Line Method 510

16-6 Depth-Sorting Method 511

16-7 BSP-Tree Method 514

16-8 Area-Subdivision Method 515

16-9 Octree Methods 517

16-10 Ray-Casting Method 518

16-11 Comparison of Visibility-Detection Methods 519

16-12 Curved Surfaces 520

Curved-Surface Representations 520

Surface Contour Plots 520

16-13 Wire-Frame Visibility Methods 521

Wire-Frame Surface-Visibility Algorithms 521

Wire-Frame Depth-Cueing Algorithm 522

16-14 OpenGL Visibility-Detection Functions 523

OpenGL Polygon-Culling Functions 523

OpenGL Depth-Buffer Functions 523

OpenGL Wire-Frame Surface-Visibility Methods 525

OpenGL Depth-Cueing Function 525

16-15 Summary 526

17 Illumination Models and Surface-Rendering Methods 531

17-1 Light Sources 532

Point Light Sources 533

Infinitely Distant Light Sources 533

Radial Intensity Attenuation 533

Directional Light Sources and Spotlight Effects 534

Angular Intensity Attenuation 535

Extended Light Sources and the Warn Model 536

17-2 Surface Lighting Effects 536

17-3 Basic Illumination Models 537

Ambient Light 537

Diffuse Reflection 538

Specular Reflection and the Phong Model 540

Combined Diffuse and Specular Reflections 543

Diffuse and Specular Reflections from Multiple Light Sources 543

Surface Light Emissions 543

Basic Illumination Model with Intensity Attenuation and Spotlights 544

RGB Color Considerations 545

Other Color Representations 546

Luminance 546

17-4 Transparent Surfaces 546

Translucent Materials 547

Light Refraction 547

Basic Transparency Model 548

17-5 Atmospheric Effects 549

17-6 Shadows 550

17-7 Camera Parameters 550

17-8 Displaying Light Intensities 550

Distributing System Intensity Levels 551

Gamma Correction and Video Lookup Tables 552

Displaying Continuous-Tone Images 553

17-9 Halftone Patterns and Dithering Techniques 553

Halftone Approximations 555

Dithering Techniques 557

17-10 Polygon Rendering Methods 559

Constant-Intensity Surface Rendering 560

Gouraud Surface Rendering 560

Phong Surface Rendering 562

Fast Phong Surface Rendering 563

17-11 OpenGL Illumination and Surface-Rendering Functions 564

OpenGL Point Light-Source Function 564

Specifying an OpenGL Light-Source Position and Type 565

Specifying OpenGL Light-Source Colors 566

Specifying Radial-Intensity Attenuation Coefficients for an OpenGL Light Source 567

OpenGL Directional Light Sources (Spotlights) 567

OpenGL Global Lighting Parameters 568

OpenGL Surface-Property Function 569

OpenGL Illumination Model 570

OpenGL Atmospheric Effects 571

OpenGL Transparency Functions 572

OpenGL Surface-Rendering Functions 573

OpenGL Halftoning Operations 574

17-12 Summary 575

18 Texturing and Surface-Detail Methods 579

18-1 Modeling Surface Detail with Polygons 580

18-2 Texture Mapping 580

Linear Texture Patterns 581

Surface Texture Patterns 581

Volume Texture Patterns 584

Texture Reduction Patterns 585

Procedural Texturing Methods 585

18-3 Bump Mapping 585

18-4 Frame Mapping 586

18-5 OpenGL Texture Functions 587

OpenGL Line-Texture Functions 587

OpenGL Surface-Texture Functions 590

OpenGL Volume-Texture Functions 592

OpenGL Color Options for Texture Patterns 592

OpenGL Texture-Mapping Options 593

OpenGL Texture Wrapping 593

Copying OpenGL Texture Patterns from the Frame Buffer 594

OpenGL Texture-Coordinate Arrays 594

Naming OpenGL Texture Patterns 594

OpenGL Texture Subpatterns 596

OpenGL Texture Reduction Patterns 596

OpenGL Texture Borders 597

OpenGL Proxy Textures 597

Automatic Texturing of Quadric Surfaces 598

Homogeneous Texture Coordinates 598

Additional OpenGL Texture Options 599

18-6 Summary 599

19 Color Models and Color Applications 603

19-1 Properties of Light 604

The Electromagnetic Spectrum 604

Psychological Characteristics of Color 605

19-2 Color Models 606

Primary Colors 606

Intuitive Color Concepts 607

19-3 Standard Primaries and the Chromaticity Diagram 607

The XYZ Color Model 608

Normalized XYZ Values 608

The CIE Chromaticity Diagram 609

Color Gamuts 609

Complementary Colors 609

Dominant Wavelength 610

Purity 610

19-4 The RGB Color Model 610

19-5 The YIQ and Related Color Models 612

The YIQ Parameters 612

Transformations Between RGB and YIQ Color Spaces 612

The YUV and YCrCb Systems 613

19-6 The CMY and CMYK Color Models 613

The CMY Parameters 613

Transformations Between CMY and RGB Color Spaces 614

19-7 The HSV Color Model 614

The HSV Parameters 614

Selecting Shades, Tints, and Tones 615

Transformations Between HSV and RGB Color Spaces 616

19-8 The HLS Color Model 618

19-9 Color Selection and Applications 619

19-10 Summary 619

20 Interactive Input Methods and Graphical User Interfaces 623

20-1 Graphical Input Data 624

20-2 Logical Classification of Input Devices 624

Locator Devices 624

Stroke Devices 625

String Devices 625

Valuator Devices 625

Choice Devices 625

Pick Devices 626

20-3 Input Functions for Graphical Data 627

Input Modes 628

Echo Feedback 628

Callback Functions 628

20-4 Interactive Picture-Construction Techniques 629

Basic Positioning Methods 629

Dragging 629

Constraints 629

Grids 630

Rubber-Band Methods 630

Gravity Field 631

Interactive Painting and Drawing Methods 631

20-5 Virtual-Reality Environments 632

20-6 OpenGL Interactive Input-Device Functions 632

GLUT Mouse Functions 633

GLUT Keyboard Functions 637

GLUT Tablet Functions 641

GLUT Spaceball Functions 642

GLUT Button-Box Function 642

GLUT Dials Function 642

OpenGL Picking Operations 643

20-7 OpenGL Menu Functions 648

Creating a GLUT Menu 648

Creating and Managing Multiple GLUT Menus 650

Creating GLUT Submenus 651

Modifying GLUT Menus 653

20-8 Designing a Graphical User Interface 654

The User Dialogue 654

Windows and Icons 654

Accommodating Multiple Skill Levels 655

Consistency 655

Minimizing Memorization 655

Backup and Error Handling 656

Feedback 656

20-9 Summary 657

21 Global Illumination 663

21-1 Ray-Tracing Methods 664

Basic Ray-Tracing Algorithm 664

Ray–Surface Intersection Calculations 667

Ray–Sphere Intersections 668

Ray–Polyhedron Intersections 669

Reducing Object-Intersection Calculations 670

Space-Subdivision Methods 670

Simulating Camera Focusing Effects 672

Antialiased Ray Tracing 674

Distributed Ray Tracing 675

21-2 Radiosity Lighting Model 678

Radiant-Energy Terms 678

The Basic Radiosity Model 679

Progressive Refinement Radiosity Method 682

21-3 Environment Mapping 684

21-4 Photon Mapping 685

21-5 Summary 686

22 Programmable Shaders 689

22-1 A History of Shading Languages 690

Cook’s Shade Trees 690

Perlin’s Pixel Stream Editor 692

RenderMan 692

22-2 The OpenGL Pipeline 694

The Fixed-Function Pipeline 694

Changing the Pipeline Structure 695

Vertex Shaders 696

Fragment Shaders 696

Geometry Shaders 696

Tessellation Shaders 696

22-3 The OpenGL Shading Language 697

Shader Structure 697

Using Shaders in OpenGL 699

Basic Data Types 703

Vectors 703

Matrices 704

Structures and Arrays 704

Control Structures 705

GLSL Functions 705

Communicating with OpenGL 706

22-4 Shader Effects 707

A Phong Shader 708

Texture Mapping 711

Bump Mapping 713

22-5 Summary 717

23 Algorithmic Modeling 719

23-1 Fractal-Geometry Methods 720

Fractal Generation Procedures 721

Classification of Fractals 721

Fractal Dimension 722

Geometric Construction of Deterministic Self-Similar Fractals 724

Geometric Construction of Statistically Self-Similar Fractals 727

Affine Fractal-Construction Methods 728

Random Midpoint-Displacement Methods 728

Controlling Terrain Topography 730

Self-Squaring Fractals 732

Self-Inverse Fractals 741

23-2 Particle Systems 743

23-3 Grammar-Based Modeling Methods 744

23-4 Summary 746

24 Visualization of Data Sets 749

24-1 Visual Representations for Scalar Fields 750

24-2 Visual Representations for Vector Fields 752

24-3 Visual Representations for Tensor Fields 752

24-4 Visual Representations for Multivariate Data Fields 753

24-5 Summary 753

A Mathematics for Computer Graphics 755

A-1 Coordinate Reference Frames 755

Two-Dimensional Cartesian Screen Coordinates 755

Standard Two-Dimensional Cartesian Reference Frames 756

Polar Coordinates in the xy Plane 756

Standard Three-Dimensional Cartesian Reference Frames 757

Three-Dimensional Cartesian Screen Coordinates 757

Three-Dimensional Curvilinear-Coordinate Systems 758

Solid Angle 759

A-2 Points and Vectors 759

Point Properties 759

Vector Properties 760

Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication 761

Scalar Product of Two Vectors 762

Vector Product of Two Vectors 762

A-3 Tensors 763

A-4 Basis Vectors and the Metric Tensor 763

Determining Basis Vectors for a Coordinate Space 764

Orthonormal Basis 764

Metric Tensor 765

A-5 Matrices 766

Scalar Multiplication and Matrix Addition 766

Matrix Multiplication 767

Matrix Transpose 768

Determinant of a Matrix 768

Matrix Inverse 768

A-6 Complex Numbers 769

Basic Complex Arithmetic 769

Imaginary Unit 770

Complex Conjugate and Modulus of a Complex Number 770

Complex Division 770

Polar-Coordinate Representation for a Complex Number 771

A-7 Quaternions 771

A-8 Nonparametric Representations 772

A-9 Parametric Representations 773

A-10 Rate-of-Change Operators 774

Gradient Operator 774

Directional Derivative 775

General Form of the Gradient Operator 775

Laplace Operator 775

Divergence Operator 776

Curl Operator 776

A-11 Rate-of-Change Integral Transformation Theorems 776

Stokes’s Theorem 777

Green’s Theorem for a Plane Surface 777

Divergence Theorem 778

Green’s Transformation Equations 779

A-12 Area and Centroid of a Polygon 779

Area of a Polygon 779

Centroid of a Polygon 780

A-13 Calculating Properties of Polyhedra 781

A-14 Numerical Methods 782

Solving Sets of Linear Equations 782

Finding Roots of Nonlinear Equations 784

Evaluating Integrals 785

Solving Ordinary Differential Equations 787

Solving Partial Differential Equations 788

Least-Squares Curve-Fitting Methods for Data Sets 789

B Graphics File Formats 793

B-1 Image-File Configurations 791

B-2 Color-Reduction Methods 792

Uniform Color Reduction 792

Popularity Color Reduction 792

Median-Cut Color Reduction 793

B-3 File-Compression Techniques 793

Run-Length Encoding 794

LZW Encoding 794

Other Pattern-Recognition Compression Methods 795

Huffman Encoding 795

Arithmetic Encoding 797

Discrete Cosine Transform 798

B-4 Composition of the Major File Formats 800

JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group 800

CGM: Computer-Graphics Metafile Format 802

TIFF: Tag Image-File Format 802

PNG: Portable Network-Graphics Format 803

XBM: X Window System Bitmap Format and XPM: X Window System Pixmap Format 803

Adobe Photoshop Format 803

MacPaint: Macintosh Paint Format 804

PICT: Picture Data Format 804

BMP: Bitmap Format 804

PCX: PC Paintbrush File Format 804

TGA: Truevision Graphics-Adapter Format 804

GIF: Graphics Interchange Format 805

B-5 Summary 805

C The World of OpenGL 807

C-1 The Evolution of OpenGL 807

The Early Years: OpenGL 1.x 808

OpenGL Goes Tiny: OpenGL ES 1.x 809

Under New Management: OpenGL and Khronos Group 810

Programmable Everything: OpenGL 2.x 810

Tiny Programs: OpenGL ES 2.x 811

Geometry and Vertex Processing Evolution: OpenGL 3.x 811

This Generation: OpenGL 4.x 813

The OpenGL Extension Mechanism 814

Where Next? 815

C-2 OpenGL beyond C and C++ 816

OpenGL for Java 816

Multithreading 819

Python and OpenGL 822

Conclusions and Directions 827

C-3 GPU Architecture, Past, Present, and Future 827

The Early Days 828

The Middle Ages 829

Modern GPUs 830

Parallelism 830

Getting the Most out of a Modern GPU 834

Balance the Workload 834

Always Move Forwards 835

Feed the Pipeline 835

Make Best Use of Your Resources 835

Bibliography 837

Index 849

OpenGL Function Index 861

Core Library Functions 861

GLSL Library Functions 862

GLU Library Functions 863

GLUT Library Functions 863

計算機圖形學（第四版）（英文版）

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