基本資料
姓名:莫里斯·阿萊斯
性別:男
出生年月:1911年生
第二十屆獲獎者莫里斯·阿萊——市場理論和最大效率理論的傑出貢獻者
主要貢獻
莫里斯·阿萊在其早期的著作中做出了許多重要的貢獻,它們對如今的一般經濟理論具有很大的影響。作為這類貢獻之一,阿萊比前人的分析更加嚴謹。他論述到,當社會上沒有人能變得更好,也沒有人變得更壞時,市場的均衡就是有效率的。而且,當初始資源再分配以後,任何社會上有效率的解都能通過市場均衡來實現。
阿萊的另一貢獻是,在其一般均衡理論模型中引入了規模報酬因素——或者稱之為基礎設施投資。他還提供了一種形式,可以用於研究一個時間段的經濟,並把資本和投資理論與
一般均衡理論結合起來。
莫里斯·阿萊經歷
在學生時代,莫里斯·阿萊經歷了1929~1933年的世界經濟危機和接踵而來的經濟蕭條時期。基於對1929年大危機造成社會大災難的憤怒和解決社會經濟問題的熱情,他立志為市場經濟中出現的若干問題找到解決辦法,並貢獻自己畢生的精力。由於具有工程學的背景,阿萊自學了經濟學,並把數學的嚴密性引進到當時幾乎沒有定量分析的法國經濟學派中。
大學畢業後,莫里斯·阿萊當上了礦業工程師。他決定發揮自己所學之專長,先從礦業角度搞微觀經濟分析,然後逐步擴大自己的經濟研究領域。1943年,莫里斯·阿萊出版了第一部經濟學專著《個體經濟學研究》(兩卷),初步展示了他傑出的研究才能。1944年,莫里斯·阿萊才33歲,便成了巴黎國家高級礦業學院礦業經濟分析的著名教授,並擔任法國經濟與社會研究中心主任。接著,莫里斯·阿萊在學術界的地位蒸蒸日上,擔任的職務越來越多且越重要:1946年任巴黎國家高級礦業學院院長和法國全國科學研究中心經濟分析中心主任;1947年任巴黎大學統計研究所理論經濟學教授;1954年任法國全國科學研究中心主管研究工作的主任;1958~1959年任維吉尼亞大學經濟學客座教授;1967~1970年,他是瑞士日內瓦國際問題研究生院的教授;自1970年後,他擔任了巴黎大學克萊芒-朱格拉高級貨幣分析研究室主任。阿萊曾服兵役一年。退伍以後,1940年7月他回到南茨仍然做礦業機關的負責人。1943年1月至1948年4月,他成為巴黎的礦業文獻和統計局局長。
莫里斯·阿萊畢生致力於市場經濟的潛心研究和經濟學的教學工作。他在巴黎第十大學金融分析中心從事研究工作直至1980年退休。退休後,他一直堅持經濟學的教學工作。1988年獲得
諾貝爾經濟學獎時,他雖已77歲,但身體健康,精力充沛,仍在巴黎國家高級礦業學院講授《金融行情分析基礎理論》。
阿萊“因為市場理論和最大效率理論方面”對經濟學所做出的貢獻,獲得1988年諾貝爾經濟學獎。他是第一個獲諾貝爾經濟學獎的法國學者。
主要學術觀點
阿萊提出了許多市場經濟模型,重新系統地闡述了一般經濟均衡理論和最大效用理論。阿萊認為,從瓦爾拉斯到德布魯的一般均衡模型均假定一個所有物品都集中在一起進行交換的市場,而且市場價格對所有市場參加者都是共同的、給定的,然後通過惟一的一輪交易做一次性移動,經濟從不均衡狀態過渡到均衡狀態。這些假定都是不現實的,他稱之為“單市場經濟模型”。針對這些缺陷,他提出“多市場經濟模型”,它假定導向均衡的交換以不同的價格連續發生,並且在任何給定時點上,不同經營者作用的價格不必是同一的,在“可分配剩餘”的驅動下,每一次交易都趨近均衡。
阿萊的“多市場模型”較之於“單市場經濟模型”更接近現實,更一般化,不僅涵蘊了存在競爭和不存在競爭的所有可能的市場形態,也能像描述西方國家經濟那樣描述東方國家經濟和開發中國家的經濟,而且其描述是動態的。由於阿萊把私人分散的、自由尋求和實現剩餘看做是實現最大效率狀態的基本途徑,因此在政策主張上極力反對凱恩斯主義的政府干預。
阿萊悖論
經濟學,尤其是作基礎理論的
個體經濟學,按馬歇爾的定義,應該解釋人們的經濟行為。但在經典的理論中,卻無法說明如下的現象:為什麼人們會不辭辛苦,跑到一家僻遠的小雜鋪店裡,在一件價碼很小的貨物上為省幾塊錢而錙銖必爭,但對距離同樣遠的一家超市提供的金額相同的幾元錢的打折卻無動於衷?為什麼人們在買保險時,會買價格較貴的小額保險,而不太願買價格較便宜的大額保單?為什麼在股市上,投資者會對短線的利好訊息反應過度,從而導致股價的過度敏感?
這一系列現象都涉及人們的基本行為,尤其是面臨風險時人們決策的基本行為。傳統的經濟學基於馮·諾伊曼和摩根斯坦1944年的理論,認為人們在面臨風險時是追求期望效用極大化的。這常被用來解釋人們在股市上對不同股票或不同投資機會的選擇。
但早在二十世紀五十年代,阿萊就通過一系列可控實驗,提出了著名的“阿萊悖論”,對期望效用理論構成了挑戰。舉個例子,若有兩個投資機會A與B:A會穩贏3000元;機會B會以80%機率獲4000元,20%機率得零。大多數人會選A。但再考慮投資機會C與D,C會以20%的機率獲4000元,80%的機率得零,而D會以25%的機率得3000元,75%的機率得零,這時,上述在A與B中偏好A的大多數人又會選C。但是,其實,機會D只是0.25×A,而機會C也只是0.25×B,顯然,人們在A、B之間的選擇與在C、D之間的選擇了發生了不一致。這就叫阿萊悖論。由於阿萊提出這一悖論以及與該悖論相關的對人類選擇行為的一系列研究,而獲得了1988年的諾貝爾經濟學獎,然而,
經濟學家們,包括阿萊本人,並沒有對這個悖論給出合理的令人信服的解釋。直到1979年卡尼曼和特韋爾斯基才在《計量經濟學》雜誌上發表了“前景理論”一文試圖給予解釋,並因此而獲得2002年的諾貝爾經濟學獎。
警示於世界金融市場
阿萊把世界金融體系的發展說成是“發瘋”,他認為如今的世界經濟已成為賭場,在這個賭場中,世界外匯市場每天成交2萬億美元,但真正與生產相關的不到3%,另外的97%則與投機活動有關。而造就這種“虛擬性”金融資產的無限膨脹,是金融市場的畸形發展,特別是金融衍生工具的不斷出現和它的市場作用引致的。其中金融期貨起了重要的推波助瀾的作用。1848年,由82位商人發起組建了芝加哥期貨交易所,是世界上第一家商品期貨交易所。世界金融期貨的出現則比商品期貨晚了100多年。1972年5月,美國國際貨幣市場首先推出了外匯期貨,此後,利率期貨、股票指數期貨等金融期貨品種相繼問世。在二十世紀八十年代,世界金融市場上每天只有1000多億美元的交易量,到如今則猛增了10多倍,自然是金融期貨的魔力使然。金融期貨及金融衍生工具的出現,本來是旨在通過套期保值而減少外匯及金融風險,但由於它們與現貨市場的密切關係及其特殊的遊戲規則,結果成為投機者利用風險,操縱市場,從而獲取超額利潤的槓桿和工具。這種遊戲規則使那些不是把它們作為套期保值、對衝風險的手段,而是用於套取暴利的投機者能夠輕易壟斷市場,能夠通過保證金槓桿巨額持倉,從而左右大市升落,使市場流動性風險、信用風險以及市場監管的複雜性和難度無限增大。此外,包括遠期交易、掉期交易和衍生工具交易在內的期貨交易,在資產負債表中是無從體現的,其交易並不影響機構本身的資產負債結構,卻在銀行賬戶上不斷進行價值重估,創造虛擬資本,從而形成一種金融泡沫大起大落的惡性循環。當然這種遊戲規則最大的問題還在於它確立了投機者的合法性,到頭來投機者們代表著市場,代表著國際資金,市場管理者理所當然要給予他們以天然的“自由度”。
1993年年底,阿萊在“費加羅報”發表了一系列文章,在這些文章中他批評了國際貨幣基金組織、世界銀行和歐洲共同體關於世界貿易自由化的政策。例如,他尖銳地批評在世界銀行、歐洲共同體研究中使用的所謂“鄉村/城市——北方/南方模型”(RUNS)的經濟模型。阿萊指出了世界銀行方法論的基本錯誤。他指出,RUNS模型和基於這個模型的研究,在科學上是不合格的。他在結論中說:“世界銀行關於世界經濟收穫很大的預測,是為給政治政策施加影響。偽科學的面具,只能愚弄幼稚無知的人。根據這樣的結論做出代表世界千百萬人民意見的決策,豈不是可笑。世界銀行的報告,使人迷惑不解,它只為頭腦簡單的教條主義和無控制的自由貿易思想所歡迎”。
改革國際貨幣體系
巨額的國際資本流動容易造成開發中國家的經濟泡沫,使IMF和世界銀行等國際金融機構對成員國經濟發展進行指導和提供諮詢的專業能力受到考驗。在金融全球化和金融自由化的過程中,一些國家盲目開放資本賬戶。由於國內資本的相對短缺和金融管制、利率水平較高,一些外資尤其是一些投機性短期資本蜂擁而至。另一方面,由於國外利率低,銀行、企業便大量借入外資,甚至是短期資本,然後投入房地產、股票市場,引起房地產和股票價格暴漲,形成虛假繁榮。虛假繁榮的結果是嚴重誤導一國的財政貨幣政策,也嚴重誤導了IMF和世界銀行等國際金融機構的決策,為危機埋下禍根。因而,IMF的改革勢在必行。
鑒於IMF改革勢在必行,一些國家的政府首腦財經官員、金融專家紛紛發表自己對改革國際貨幣體系的看法或拋出自己的改革方案。其中阿萊的方案包括7個要點:完全放棄浮動匯率制,代之以可調整的固定匯率制;實行可確保國際收支平衡的匯率制;禁止貨幣競相貶值的做法;在國際上完全放棄以美元為貨幣、匯兌貨幣和儲備貨幣的記賬單位;將WTO和IMF合併為一個組織,成立地區性組織;禁止各大銀行為了自己的利益在外匯、股票和衍生產品方面從事投機活動;通過適當的指數化在國際上逐步實行共同的記賬單位。
著作點擊
莫里斯·阿萊一生著述頗多,除獲得1988年第20屆諾貝爾經濟學獎的代表作《市場規律研究》和《經濟與利息》(1947)外,還有:
《個體經濟學研究》(1943);
《歐洲一體化:通向富裕之路》(1959);
《資本稅與貨幣改革》(1977);
《預期效用假設與阿萊悖論:關於不確定性條件下合理決策的講座及阿萊的答辯》(1979,與哈根合著);
《資本在經濟發展中的作用》(1965);
《增長與通貨膨脹》(1969);
《一般經濟均衡理論與最大效益:當前的困境與新的展望》(1971);
《健忘與興趣》(1972)和《市場經濟的貨幣條件》(1987)等。 [ENGLISH]
KUNGL. VETENSKAPSAKADEMIEN THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has decided to award the 1988 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences to Professor Maurice Allais, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, France,for his pioneering contributions to the theory of markets and efficient utilization of resources.
One of the principal tasks of basic research in economics is to formulate a rigorous model of equilibrium in markets and examine the efficiency of this equilibrium. The problem dates back to Adam Smith and his theory of the "invisible hand" which coordinates - to all appearances - a chaotic structure comprised of a multitude of independent and individual decisions based on self-interest. Paradoxically, this chaos gives rise to coordinated equilibria based on market prices. Firms' production decisions will correspond to consumers' planned consumption.
Adam Smith formulated his theory in the verbal and somewhat expository manner that was common in the social sciences during the latter part of the 18th century. About a hundred years later, other scholars tried to reformulate Smith's basic problems in mathematical terms. As a result, modern price theory as it emerged in the late 19th century, differed radically from previous conceptions of "just" prices or prices based exclusively on production costs for labor.
The missing link in the development of a more rigorous theory was provided in the 1870s by the French economist Léon Walras. He formulated his model ot the economic system as a large system of equations which described individuals' demand for goods and services and their supply of labor and other productive input along with firms' supply of goods and their demand for various factors of production. A set of prices which gave rise to equilibrium between supply and demand could, in fact, be regarded as a solution to this extremely large and complex system of equations. Later on, Walras's model was developed further by, among others, the Italian economist and sociologist Vilfredo Pareto. The Swedish economist Gustav Cassel formulated a somewhat simplified version which had a significant impact internationally.
The foremost contribution of Maurice Allais was made in the 1940s when he continued to develop Walras's and Pareto's work by providing increasingly rigorous mathematical formulations of market equilibrium and the efficiency properties of markets. On the basis of mathematical models of households' and firms' planning and choice, he introduced a very general formulation of the conditions for market equilibrium. Allais's two pioneering works are A la Recherche d'une Discipline Economique, published during the war in 1943, and Economie et Interet, 1947. A second edition of the first book appeared in 1952 as Traite d'Economie Pure. Each of these studies was extensive; the first comprised about 900 pages and the second approximately 800.
Traite d'Economie Pure contains a general and rigorous formulation of the two basic propositions of welfare theory. An economic situation with equilibrium prices is socially efficient in the sense that no one can become better off without someone else becoming worse off. In addition, under certain reasonable conditions, each such socially efficient situation can be achieved through redistribution of initial resources and a system of equilibrium prices. These propositions are important not only as results of basic research, but also as guidelines for planning in e.g., the public sector by means of prices (instead of direct regulation). Allais also formulated a generalization which covers the case where various kinds of returns to scale may give rise to natural monopolies. Through his analysis of market equilibrium and social efficiency, Allais laid the foundations for the school of postwar French economists who not only analyzed the conditions for efficient use of resources in large public monopolies (such as Electricité de France or SNCF, the state-owned railroad), but also in many instances applied the theory to business management.
Allais's two monumental works also contain many results which represent very early contributions in areas that were not explored until much later on. He used new mathematical methods to analyze the stability of equilibria, i.e., the conditions under which an economy - after a disturbance - will return to equilibrium through price formation. In his 1948 study, Allais anticipated important results in research which led to the modern theory of economic growth in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Allais's distinguished contribution may, to some extent, be regarded as a parallel to two important works published around the same time in the Anglo-Saxon research community: Value and Capital (1939) by Sir John Hicks, and Foundations of Economic Analvsis (1947) by Paul A. Samuelson. Hicks was awarded the Nobel memorial prize in economic sciences in 1972 and Samuelson in 1970. The similarity lies primarily in the objective of providing a comprehensive and rigorous interpretation of economic theory. The main difference is perhaps that Allais's formulation is more general and includes an analysis of, e.g. households' and firms' long-run (or intertemporal) planning. The work of Allais served as a basis for the analysis of market equilibrium and social efficiency using more advanced mathematical methods carried out by his pupil, Gerard Debreu (laureate in 1983), concurrently, and sometimes in collaboration with, Kenneth Arrow (laureate in 1972).
Allais's outstanding achievements may be characterized as basic research in economics. By his links to an older French tradition in economic research, Maurice Allais is the most prominent figure in modern economic research in France as regards basic theory and applications to public-sector planning. Even though his fundamental research has been relatively little known beyond the French-speaking sphere, Allais has had a far-reaching indirect impact through younger French economists who have been strongly influenced by his work.
Maurice Allais has also made distinguished, pioneering and often highly original contributions in other areas of economic research. At an early stage, he carried out theoretical and empirical studies on the significance and determinants of the volume of money. He was thus an initiator of monetary macrodynamic analyses. Outside of a rather small circle of economists, he is perhaps best known for his studies of risk theory and the so-called Allais paradox. He has shown that the theory of maximization of expected utility, which has been accepted for more than forty years, does not apply to many empirically realistic decisions under risk and uncertainty.
During the past two decades, Allais has tried to generalize market theory by emphasizing its dynamic aspects. The impetus for consumers' and producers' economic behavior consists of efforts to use any surpluses that may arise in an economy through previously unexploited exchange opportunities. Equilibrium is reached when these surpluses have been exhausted. Allais summarized many of his early and more recent research contributions in La Theorie Générale des Surplus (1981).
The sum ot Allais's productive achievements in economic theory is considerable. Moreover, he has carried out various applied studies in, e.g., operations research and has participated extensively in debates in the French press. Alongside his accomplishments as an economist, Allais has published studies in history and physics, particularly geophysics.